Plato's Myths

MANY or most modern readers can accept as virtually self-evident that the Hesiod's Ages of Man myth is a moral allegory, and not a primitive attempt to explain human origins. While it does literally present itself as history — so also do the myths of Genesis, which are usually understood today as allegories. In particular, we have ample reason to view the Ages of Man story as an allegory for the psychological fall — moral, intellectual and emotional — of the individual due to hubris and egoism (Uebersax, 2014). Supporting arguments for this position include the following:

• Genesis parallels. Structurally the Ages of Man myth closely matches the Biblical stories of the fall of Adam and Eve, their expulsion from Paradise, and the continuing descent of humankind through the Tower of Babel and Noah narratives. Just as the modern consensus is that the Genesis myths are meant allegorically, we should suppose the same is so here. (Unless we believe that while the ancient Hebrews were busy allegorizing, their Greek contemporaries were somehow incapable of it.) It's possible there is some residue of 'historical' memory in the story, yet an extremely important moral meaning applicable to the individual, allegorically expressed, can hardly be denied.

• Narrative context. Quite significantly, immediately preceding this myth in Works and Days, Hesiod presents the story of Prometheus, Epimetheus and Pandora. Pandora is clearly recognizable as analogous to the Biblical Eve. Further, the names Prometheus (pro metheus = forward-thinking) and Epimetheus (epi metheus = thinking back or around) strongly pull for a psychological meaning. A plausible interpretation of that myth would be "our excessive and undirected thinking about past and future is the source of myriad woes — i.e., opening Pandora's proverbial box." The painful truth and major existential relevance of this psychological fact hardly need be emphasized.

  Indeed, given an attentive reading, the entire first part (lines 1–382) of Works and Days arguably looks more like a traditional moral exhortation — similar to, say, Proverbs in the Bible and numerous other specimens of ancient wisdom literature — than an almanac, history, or literal manual of farming advice, as modern critics have generally supposed.

• Practical value. Ultimately with a work like this we must ask, why was it considered so important? Why carefully preserved, transmitted and taught for so many generations? The logical explanation is that it contains deeply valuable moral and psychological information, and was written with those concerns foremost in mind.

Ultimately, perhaps, each person will have to judge for themselves by reading it whether this myth, like the Garden of Eden story, has a relevant psychological message and what Hesiod's primary concern is.

The translation is that of Hugh G. Evelyn-White (Hesiod: The Homeric Hymns and Homerica. Loeb Classical Library L057. Cambridge, MA: Heinemann, 1914.)

Numbers in parentheses indicate lines in the original Greek.

After the myth, some additional paragraphs from Works and Days are supplied that help establish its moral-exhortatory nature of the Ages of Man section.

(109–126)
First of all the deathless gods who dwell on Olympus made a golden race of mortal men who lived in the time of Cronos when he was reigning in heaven. And they lived like gods without sorrow of heart, remote and free from toil and grief: miserable age rested not on them; but with legs and arms never failing they made merry with feasting beyond the reach of all evils. When they died, it was as though they were overcome with sleep, and they had all good things; for the fruitful earth unforced bare them fruit abundantly and without stint. They dwelt in ease and peace upon their lands with many good things, rich in flocks and loved by the blessed gods. But after the earth had covered this generation — they are called pure spirits (daimones hagnoi; δαίμονες ἁγνοὶ = holy spirits) dwelling on the earth, and are kindly, delivering from harm, and guardians of mortal men; for they roam everywhere over the earth, clothed in mist and keep watch on judgements and cruel deeds, givers of wealth; for this royal right also they received; —

(127–142)
then they who dwell on Olympus made a second generation which was of silver and less noble by far. It was like the golden race neither in body nor in spirit. A child was brought up at his good mother's side a hundred years, an utter simpleton, playing childishly in his own home. But when they were full grown and were come to the full measure of their prime, they lived only a little time and that in sorrow because of their foolishness, for they could not keep from sinning and from wronging [hubris; ὕβρις] one another, nor would they serve the immortals, nor sacrifice on the holy altars of the blessed ones as it is right for men to do wherever they dwell. Then Zeus the son of Cronos was angry and put them away, because they would not give honor to the blessed gods who live on Olympus.

But when earth had covered this generation also — they are called blessed spirits of the underworld by men, and, though they are of second order, yet honor attends them also —

(143–155)
Zeus the Father made a third generation of mortal men, a brazen race, sprung from ash-trees ; and it was in no way equal to the silver age, but was terrible and strong. They loved the lamentable works of Ares and deeds of violence [hubris; ὕβρις]; they ate no bread, but were hard of heart like adamant, fearful men. Great was their strength and unconquerable the arms which grew from their shoulders on their strong limbs. Their armor was of bronze, and their houses of bronze, and of bronze were their implements: there was no black iron. These were destroyed by their own hands and passed to the dank house of chill Hades, and left no name: terrible though they were, black Death seized them, and they left the bright light of the sun.

(156–173)
But when earth had covered this generation also, Zeus the son of Cronos made yet another, the fourth, upon the fruitful earth, which was nobler and more righteous, a god-like race of hero-men who are called demi-gods, the race before our own, throughout the boundless earth. Grim war and dread battle destroyed a part of them, some in the land of Cadmus at seven-gated Thebes when they fought for the flocks of Oedipus, and some, when it had brought them in ships over the great sea gulf to Troy for rich-haired Helen's sake: there death's end enshrouded a part of them. But to the others father Zeus the son of Cronos gave a living and an abode apart from men, and made them dwell at the ends of earth. And they live untouched by sorrow in the islands of the blessed along the shore of deep-swirling Ocean, happy heroes for whom the grain-giving earth bears honey-sweet fruit flourishing thrice a year,

(174–201)
Thereafter, would that I were not among the men of the fifth generation, but either had died before or been born afterwards. For now truly is a race of iron, and men never rest from labor and sorrow by day, and from perishing by night; and the gods shall lay sore trouble upon them. But, notwithstanding, even these shall have some good mingled with their evils. And Zeus will destroy this race of mortal men also when they come to have grey hair on the temples at their birth. The father will not agree with his children, nor the children with their father, nor guest with his host, nor comrade with comrade; nor will brother be dear to brother as aforetime. Men will dishonor their parents as they grow quickly old, and will carp at them, chiding them with bitter words, hard-hearted they, not knowing the fear of the gods. They will not repay their aged parents the cost of their nurture, for might shall be their right: and one man will sack another's city.

There will be no favor for the man who keeps his oath or for the just or for the good; but rather men will praise the evil-doer and his violent dealing [hubris; ὕβρις]. Strength will be right, and reverence will cease to be; and the wicked will hurt the worthy man, speaking false words against him, and will swear an oath upon them. Envy, foul-mouthed, delighting in evil, with scowling face, will go along with wretched men one and all. And then Aidos [Αιδως] and Nemesis [Νεμεσις], with their sweet forms wrapped in white robes, will go from the wide-pathed earth and forsake mankind to join the company of the deathless gods: and bitter sorrows will be left for mortal men, and there will be no help against evil.

~*~ FOLLOWING the Ages of Myth section are several additional paragraphs of interest. These recapitulate the theme of moral fall through hubris and impiety and also help demonstrate the exhortatory nature of at least part 1 of Works and Days. Perses, to whom the entire poem is addressed, is Hesiod's brother.

(202–212)
[At this point Hesiod places the fable of the Hawk and the Nightingale. As its meaning is unclear, it is omitted here.]

(213–224)
But you, Perses, listen to right and do not foster violence [hubris; ὕβρις]; for violence is bad for a poor man. Even the prosperous cannot easily bear its burden, but is weighed down under it when he has fallen into delusion. The better path is to go by on the other side towards Justice; for Justice [Dike; Δικη] beats Outrage [hubris; ὕβρις] when she comes at length to the end of the race. But only when he has suffered does the fool learn this. For Oath [Horkos; Ὁρκος] keeps pace with wrong judgements. There is a noise when Justice is being dragged in the way where those who devour bribes and give sentence with crooked judgements, take her. And she, wrapped in mist, follows to the city and haunts of the people, weeping, and bringing mischief to men, even to such as have driven her forth in that they did not deal straightly with her.

(225–237)
But they who give straight judgements to strangers and to the men of the land, and go not aside from what is just, their city flourishes, and the people prosper in it: Peace [Eirene; Ειρηνη], the nurse of children, is abroad in their land, and all-seeing Zeus never decrees cruel war against them. Neither famine nor disaster ever haunt men who do true justice; but light-heartedly they tend the fields which are all their care. The earth bears them victual in plenty, and on the mountains the oak bears acorns upon the top and bees in the midst. Their woolly sheep are laden with fleeces; their women bear children like their parents. They flourish continually with good things, and do not travel on ships, for the grain-giving earth bears them fruit.

(238–247)
But for those who practice violence [hubris; ὕβρις] and cruel deeds far-seeing Zeus, the son of Cronos, ordains a punishment. Often even a whole city suffers for a bad man who sins and devises presumptuous deeds, and the son of Cronos lays great trouble upon the people, famine and plague together, so that the men perish away, and their women do not bear children, and their houses become few, through the contriving of Olympian Zeus. And again, at another time, the son of Cronos either destroys their wide army, or their walls, or else makes an end of their ships on the sea.

(248–273)
You princes, mark well this punishment, you also, for the deathless gods are near among men; and mark all those who oppress their fellows with crooked judgements; and heed not the anger of the gods. For upon the bounteous earth Zeus has thrice ten thousand spirits, watchers of mortal men, and these keep watch on judgements and deeds of wrong as they roam, clothed in mist, all over the earth. And there is virgin Justice [Dike; Δικη], the daughter of Zeus, who is honored and reverenced among the gods who dwell on Olympus, and whenever anyone hurts her with lying slander, she sits beside her father, Zeus the son of Cronos, and tells him of men's wicked heart, until the people pay for the mad folly of their princes who, evilly minded, pervert judgement and give sentence crookedly.

Keep watch against this, you princes, and make straight your judgements, you who devour bribes; put crooked judgements altogether from your thoughts. He does mischief to himself who does mischief to another, and evil planned harms the plotter most. The eye of Zeus, seeing all and understanding all, beholds these things too, if so he will, and fails not to mark what sort of justice is this that the city keeps within it. Now, therefore, may neither I myself be righteous among men, nor my son — for then it is a bad thing to be righteous — if indeed the unrighteous shall have the greater right. But I think that all-wise Zeus will not yet bring that to pass.

(274–285)
But you, Perses, lay up these things within your heart and listen now to right [Dike; Δικη], ceasing altogether to think of violence. For the son of Cronos has ordained this law for men, that fishes and beasts and winged fowls should devour one another, for right is not in them; but to mankind he gave right which proves far the best. For whoever knows the right and is ready to speak it, far-seeing Zeus gives him prosperity; but whoever deliberately lies in his witness and foreswears himself, and so hurts Justice and sins beyond repair, that man's generation is left obscure thereafter. But the generation of the man who swears truly is better thenceforward.

(286–292)
To you, foolish Perses, I will speak good sense. Badness can be got easily and in shoals; the road to her is smooth, and she lives very near us. But between us and Goodness [Arete; Αρετη = Virtue] the gods have placed the sweat of our brows; long and steep is the path that leads to her, and it is rough at the first; but when a man has reached the top, then is she easy to reach, though before that she was hard.

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